Saudi and Egypt Economic Corridor Shows the Bilateral Trade Impacting Tourism Landscape with The New Wealth Divide

The Saudi Egypt economic corridor is the most important financial corridor in the Middle East with billion dollar trade and large scale infrastructure development with Saudi Arabia and Egypt. But as the flow of cross border investments picks up late 2026, there is a gap that experts are concerned about. That gap is the quickly evolving regional market. More detailed market data shows a huge wealth discrepancy in the region between residents and the wider more affluent expatriate population, resulting in two completely different consumer markets. The difference in demographics means it is no longer adequate to collectively consider the region as one economic unit. Analyzing the two distinct consumer markets will help inform policy and apprise the needs of both for continued economic prosperity in the region and ease bilateral trade in the Middle East.

Background of the Strategic Bilateral Partnership

A Historic Foundation of Middle Eastern Commerce

The Saudi Egypt economic corridor is not a recent phenomenon; it is built upon decades of mutual cooperation, shared geopolitical interests, and robust bilateral trade. Historically, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Arab Republic of Egypt have acted as the twin pillars of economic stability in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Their strategic alliance has been defined by extensive cross-border investments, labour mobility, and energy cooperation. Over the years, the two nations have signed more than 160 bilateral agreements aimed at fostering economic integration, streamlining customs processes, and ensuring a seamless flow of capital and human resources across the Red Sea.

As of September 2026, this historic foundation has evolved into a highly complex, multi-layered economic ecosystem. The traditional reliance on basic commodity exchange has given way to advanced financial integrations, sovereign wealth fund investments, and technological infrastructure projects. However, the sheer scale of this expansion has brought new demographic realities to the forefront, necessitating a complete re-evaluation of how businesses and governments approach the regional market.

The Genesis of the Modern Corridor

The modern iteration of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor began to take shape with the alignment of Saudi Vision 2030 and Egypt Vision 2030. Both nations recognised the urgent need to diversify their economies away from traditional income sources—oil reliance for Saudi Arabia, and traditional agricultural and toll revenues for Egypt. This mutual realisation spurred an unprecedented wave of foreign direct investment and joint ventures.

By the early 2020s, official trade volumes reached historic highs, with the Federation of Saudi Chambers noting a trade exchange volume of approximately SAR 54 billion in 2021. This momentum has carried over into 2026, transforming the corridor into a sophisticated network of logistics hubs, green energy grids, and digital financial platforms. Yet, as the economic machinery grew more advanced, market analysts began to notice distinct behavioural patterns within the population driving this growth. The unified market approach that once dominated corporate strategies was no longer sufficient to capture the nuances of the modern workforce and investor base.

The New Market Reality: Demographic Divergence

Market Analytics: Segmenting the Population

Industry experts point out that the region can no longer be treated as a single block. Advanced market analytics in 2026 show a deep split between Gulf nationals and the wider expatriate resident population. This divergence is not merely statistical; it represents a fundamental shift in purchasing power, investment priorities, and consumer behaviour. Gulf nationals, particularly Saudi citizens, represent a demographic with high discretionary income, backed by strong state welfare systems and sovereign wealth growth.

Conversely, the expatriate resident population—comprising millions of Egyptians working in Saudi Arabia—represents a distinct economic force driven by remittance obligations, long-term savings strategies, and essential consumption. Market analytics platforms now categorise these two groups into entirely separate consumer profiles. Businesses attempting to launch pan-regional products without accounting for this demographic split are finding themselves outmanoeuvred by competitors who deploy highly targeted, data-driven strategies tailored to each specific cohort.

Why the “Single Block” Theory is Now Obsolete

For decades, multinational corporations and regional enterprises treated the Middle East as a monolithic consumer base. Marketing campaigns, investment portfolios, and retail strategies were designed for a generic “Arab market.” However, as of September 2026, the deep split in the Saudi Egypt economic corridor has rendered this single block theory obsolete. The economic drivers for Gulf nationals are deeply rooted in luxury consumption, premium real estate acquisition, and domestic economic diversification under Vision 2030.

In stark contrast, the expatriate workforce operates on a transnational economic model. Their financial decisions are heavily influenced by currency exchange rates, the cost of living in both their host and home countries, and the necessity of supporting families back in Egypt. Consequently, consumer goods, financial services, and telecommunications companies must now run parallel strategies. A single product launch or investment vehicle can no longer satisfy both the sovereign-backed domestic citizen and the remittance-focused expatriate worker.

Purchasing Power Parity and Consumer Behaviour

Understanding the divergence in purchasing power parity (PPP) is essential for grasping the current dynamics of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor. Saudi Arabia boasts a formidable GDP per capita of over $35,000, while Egypt’s stands at approximately $3,340. This stark macroeconomic reality dictates consumer behaviour on a micro level. Gulf nationals exhibit highly inelastic demand for premium services, high-end tourism, and sophisticated financial wealth management.

Meanwhile, the Egyptian expatriate resident population within the Kingdom demonstrates a high elasticity of demand for consumer goods. Their spending is heavily concentrated on telecommunications to maintain contact with home, budget aviation for annual travel, and FMCG (fast-moving consumer goods) products. Real estate investments also highlight this split: Gulf investors seek lucrative commercial and luxury residential properties on Egypt’s North Coast or Red Sea riviera, whereas expatriates primarily invest in family housing in urban centres like Cairo and Alexandria to secure their long-term future.

Latest Official Trade Developments as of September 2026

Current Bilateral Trade Statistics and Metrics

As of late 2026, official statistics reaffirm the unparalleled strength of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor. Data sourced from the Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC) highlights that Saudi Arabia maintains a dominant position in bilateral trade, exporting an impressive $8.29 billion worth of goods to Egypt. In return, Egypt exports approximately $5.8 billion to Saudi Arabia, ranking the Kingdom as its top export destination globally.

This robust exchange cements Egypt as one of the most critical Arab commercial partners for the Kingdom. The sheer volume of trade is supported by continuous governmental efforts to remove non-tariff barriers, streamline customs clearances, and establish free trade zones along the Red Sea coast. These official trade statistics not only reflect the exchange of goods but also the deep interdependence of the two economies in ensuring regional stability and supply chain resilience.

Shifting Trade Balances and Import-Export Dynamics

The trade balance between the two nations is continually shifting, reflecting broader macroeconomic trends and industrial policies. As of 2026, Saudi Arabia enjoys a trade surplus of approximately $2.48 billion with Egypt. A closer look at recent monthly trends reveals dynamic fluctuations. For instance, in mid-2026, exports from Egypt to Saudi Arabia saw a remarkable year-on-year increase of nearly 95.8%, driven by enhanced manufacturing capacities and agricultural exports.

Simultaneously, Saudi exports to Egypt experienced a slight contraction of around 12.8% during the same period, indicating a potential recalibration of Egypt’s import substitution strategies and local production capabilities. These shifting import-export dynamics are closely monitored by the Central Bank of Egypt and the Saudi Central Bank (SAMA), as they directly impact foreign currency reserves, inflation rates, and the broader economic stability of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor.

The Role of Refined Petroleum and Non-Oil Exports

While efforts to diversify are in full swing, energy remains the bedrock of the bilateral trade relationship. According to official 2024–2026 data, the top export from Saudi Arabia to Egypt is Refined Petroleum, valued at a staggering $4.72 billion. Conversely, Egypt’s top export to Saudi Arabia is also Refined Petroleum, amounting to $2.59 billion, alongside significant non-oil exports such as copper wire ($636 million) and citrus fruits ($172 million).

The dominance of petrochemicals underscores the strategic energy interdependence between the two nations. However, the growth in non-oil exports, particularly Egyptian agricultural products and manufactured goods, highlights the success of economic diversification programmes. The Kingdom relies heavily on Egypt to supply its high-consumption markets with fresh produce and industrial materials, fulfilling a critical requirement of Saudi Vision 2030 to ensure food security and industrial supply chain stability.

Government Announcements and Sovereign Investments

Public Investment Fund (PIF) Directives in Egypt

One of the most consequential drivers of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor is the aggressive investment strategy of Saudi Arabia’s Public Investment Fund (PIF). As a sovereign wealth fund managing trillions of riyals, the PIF serves as the primary investment arm of Saudi Vision 2030. Recognising Egypt’s vast demographic potential and strategic geographic location, the PIF has directed billions into the Egyptian economy.

Through newly established entities and direct acquisitions, the PIF has targeted critical Egyptian sectors, including healthcare, financial services, real estate, and agricultural technology. Official data from the General Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI) in Egypt frequently highlights Saudi Arabia as a leading source of foreign direct investment. These sovereign wealth directives are not merely financial transactions; they are strategic geopolitical manoeuvres designed to anchor the Egyptian economy, secure supply lines, and guarantee long-term sustainable returns for the Saudi state.

Official Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) in 2026

The diplomatic landscape of 2026 has been characterised by a flurry of high-level meetings and the signing of transformative Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs). Government ministries from both nations have officially ratified agreements designed to harmonise regulatory frameworks, thereby facilitating smoother cross-border capital flows. These MoUs cover diverse sectors, ranging from green hydrogen production to digital economy integration and advanced logistics.

A key focus of recent announcements has been the alignment of investment incentives. The Saudi Ministry of Investment (MISA) and Egypt’s GAFI have established joint task forces to resolve legacy investment disputes and offer fast-tracked licensing for businesses operating within the Saudi Egypt economic corridor. By providing a stable, predictable, and legally secure environment, these official agreements are highly effective in attracting institutional investors who were previously hesitant due to bureaucratic hurdles.

Regulatory Approvals and GAFI Initiatives

In tandem with bilateral MoUs, Egypt’s General Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI) has rolled out a series of unilateral initiatives aimed explicitly at capturing Gulf capital. In 2026, the Egyptian government introduced sweeping regulatory approvals that allow Saudi investors unprecedented access to state-owned assets and infrastructure megaprojects. These include golden licenses for strategic industries, which bypass traditional bureaucratic red tape, granting immediate operational approval.

Furthermore, GAFI has tailored its outreach programmes to address the specific demands of Gulf nationals, offering sovereign guarantees and tax exemptions for large-scale industrial and real estate ventures. These regulatory reforms are carefully designed to assure Saudi investors that their capital is protected against currency fluctuations and legislative unpredictability, thereby cementing the Saudi Egypt economic corridor as the safest and most lucrative investment destination in the MENA region.

Infrastructure and Cross-Border Energy Integration

The 3GW Electrical Interconnection Project

Perhaps the most tangible physical manifestation of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor is the monumental electrical interconnection project. This ground-breaking infrastructure initiative, representing the first large-scale high-voltage direct current (HVDC) link in the MENA region, is designed to exchange up to 3GW of electricity between the two nations. Spanning approximately 1,350 kilometres, the project involves a complex network of overhead transmission lines and subsea cables traversing the Gulf of Aqaba.

By late 2025, official statements confirmed that the project was 95% complete, ahead of its scheduled first-phase operation in late 2025 or early 2026. Italy-based Prysmian was contracted for the intricate submarine cable systems, highlighting the international scale of this bilateral endeavour. This electrical bridge seamlessly connects the 500/220kV Badr converter station in Egypt with the Tabuk and Madinah converter stations in Saudi Arabia, creating a unified energy grid capable of supporting rapid industrial expansion.

Strengthening Regional Energy Security

The strategic importance of the electrical interconnection project extends far beyond simple power exchange; it is a cornerstone of regional energy security. Saudi Arabia has set ambitious targets to generate 50% of its power from renewable sources and natural gas by 2030, while Egypt aims for 42% renewable generation by 2035. The interconnection allows both nations to optimise their surplus production and balance peak load demands efficiently.

Because the peak demand times in Saudi Arabia (typically midday during summer due to air conditioning) and Egypt (often evening hours) differ, the two nations can share power reserves without necessitating the construction of redundant, costly domestic power plants. This synergy not only reduces carbon emissions and fossil fuel consumption but also significantly lowers operational costs, providing a massive economic boost to the Saudi Egypt economic corridor.

Logistics and Red Sea Maritime Corridors

Alongside energy infrastructure, maritime logistics across the Red Sea have seen unprecedented modernisation. The seaports of Jeddah, Neom, and Yanbu on the Saudi coast are increasingly integrated with Egyptian ports such as Safaga, Sokhna, and Alexandria. This maritime integration is crucial for the efficient movement of both raw materials and finished consumer goods.

In 2026, government initiatives have focused on digitising port operations and implementing unified blockchain-based customs ledgers to reduce clearing times from days to hours. This logistical optimisation is essential for supporting the massive trade volume—historically valued at over SAR 54 billion—and ensuring that perishable agricultural exports from Egypt reach the Saudi market in optimal condition. The Red Sea is no longer just a body of water separating two nations; it is a highly managed, high-speed logistical highway.

Human Capital: The Expatriate Workforce Framework

Egyptian Expatriates in the Saudi Economy

Human capital remains the lifeblood of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor. Millions of Egyptian professionals, labourers, engineers, and healthcare workers form the backbone of the expatriate resident population in Saudi Arabia. They play an indispensable role in executing the ambitious infrastructure projects mandated by Saudi Vision 2030, from the construction of Neom to the expansion of healthcare facilities across the Kingdom.

This massive workforce migration creates a profound socioeconomic interdependency. The Egyptian expatriate workforce is highly valued for its cultural and linguistic alignment with Saudi society, making them the preferred choice for both public sector contracts and private enterprise. However, as the region’s market analytics demonstrate, the economic behaviour of this group is fundamentally distinct from that of domestic Gulf nationals, requiring businesses to adapt their services to cater specifically to expatriate needs.

Remittances as an Economic Stabiliser

The financial impact of the Egyptian expatriate workforce cannot be overstated. Remittances sent from Saudi Arabia back to Egypt represent one of the largest and most reliable sources of foreign currency for the Central Bank of Egypt. These financial inflows are a critical macroeconomic stabiliser, helping Egypt manage its balance of payments, service foreign debt, and mitigate the impacts of currency devaluation.

In 2026, the demand for efficient, low-cost digital remittance platforms has surged. Financial institutions and fintech startups within the Saudi Egypt economic corridor are fiercely competing to capture this market. Unlike Gulf nationals who seek complex wealth management, the expatriate population prioritises speed, security, and low transaction fees. Official policies from the Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) have increasingly supported the digitisation of these remittance corridors, ensuring transparent and regulated capital flows that benefit both economies.

Navigating Visas and New Labour Reforms

To maintain the efficiency of this human capital exchange, both governments have implemented significant labour reforms by 2026. Saudi Arabia has continuously refined its visa processes and labour regulations to attract highly skilled Egyptian professionals while ensuring the protection of workers’ rights. The introduction of flexible work visas, enhanced digital residency platforms (like the Premium Residency programme), and streamlined end-of-service benefits have deeply impacted the expatriate resident population.

These reforms are designed to transition the expatriate workforce from transient, short-term labourers into a more stable, medium-to-long-term resident demographic. This shift encourages expatriates to invest more of their income within the Kingdom—such as bringing their families and increasing domestic consumption—while still maintaining robust remittance flows to Egypt. Navigating these evolving regulatory frameworks is a top priority for multinational corporations operating within the corridor.

Economic Implications for Financial Markets

Central Bank Policies and Currency Management

The macroeconomic health of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor is heavily reliant on the monetary policies orchestrated by the Central Bank of Egypt and the Saudi Central Bank (SAMA). In 2026, managing currency valuations remains a complex challenge. Egypt’s efforts to maintain a flexible exchange rate and curb inflation require substantial foreign currency reserves, a significant portion of which is supplied by Saudi deposits and investments.

SAMA, on the other hand, focuses on maintaining the riyal’s peg to the US dollar while managing domestic liquidity amid massive sovereign spending. The financial alignment between the two central banks is evident in bilateral currency swap agreements and coordinated regulatory oversight of cross-border banking operations. This institutional cooperation provides a safety net against global market volatility, reassuring investors that their capital within the corridor is shielded by robust governmental backing.

Gulf Capital in Egyptian Real Estate Megaprojects

Real estate is a primary battleground where the demographic split between Gulf nationals and the expatriate resident population is most visible. Sovereign and private Gulf capital has poured into monumental Egyptian real estate projects, such as the New Administrative Capital, New Alamein, and the highly publicised Ras El Hekma coastal development. These projects are specifically designed and marketed to attract affluent Saudi investors seeking luxury holiday homes and high-yield commercial assets.

Conversely, the Egyptian expatriate in Saudi Arabia is driving demand for mid-tier residential housing, leveraging their riyal-denominated incomes to purchase family homes and investment apartments in greater Cairo and regional governorates. Property developers have had to completely segment their marketing strategies, offering bespoke luxury services to Saudi nationals while providing accessible, mortgage-backed financial plans for the expatriate workforce.

Corporate Banking and Fintech Integration

To facilitate this massive cross-border capital flow, corporate banking and fintech sectors have undergone rapid integration. The traditional banking landscape is being disrupted by agile fintech platforms that cater to both ends of the demographic spectrum. For Gulf nationals and sovereign entities, banks offer sophisticated cross-border syndicated loans, trade finance instruments, and corporate advisory services to manage multi-billion-dollar investments.

Simultaneously, for the expatriate resident population, fintech companies have developed seamless digital wallets that allow for instant, cross-border retail transactions and micro-investments. This dual-track financial ecosystem ensures that the Saudi Egypt economic corridor remains highly liquid and efficient, reducing the friction historically associated with international capital transfers and empowering both corporate titans and everyday workers.

Industry Impact: Tourism, Aviation, and Retail

Segmenting the Tourism Sector for Target Audiences

The tourism sector perfectly illustrates the necessity of abandoning the single block theory. Historically, Egypt was the primary leisure destination for Saudi citizens, while Saudi Arabia hosted millions of Egyptians for religious tourism (Hajj and Umrah). By 2026, market analytics have prompted a sophisticated segmentation of these tourist flows.

Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism now heavily promotes ultra-luxury, exclusive Red Sea resorts and private integrated communities to high-net-worth Gulf nationals, moving away from mass-market advertising. Conversely, Saudi Arabia’s expanding tourism sector—driven by Vision 2030 initiatives—is targeting the affluent segments of the Egyptian market for leisure and entertainment, while continuing to optimise and digitise the massive religious tourism infrastructure that caters to the broader expatriate resident population and Egyptian citizens.

Supply Chain Optimisation Across the Red Sea

The sheer volume of goods moving through the Saudi Egypt economic corridor—over $14 billion annually in combined bilateral trade—has forced a revolution in supply chain optimisation. Logistics companies are no longer treating the route as a simple point-A-to-point-B transfer. Advanced analytics and AI-driven forecasting are being deployed to predict the distinct consumption patterns of the two primary demographic groups.

Cold chain logistics have been massively upgraded to handle the influx of Egyptian agricultural exports required to feed the Saudi population and its expatriate workforce. Furthermore, the establishment of integrated logistics zones near ports ensures that consumer goods demanded by the expatriate population, such as specific regional foods and textiles, are processed rapidly, minimizing spoilage and reducing shelf prices.

Retail Market Adaptations to Demographic Splits

Retailers operating in Saudi Arabia have fully embraced the demographic split revealed by 2026 market analytics. Supermarket chains and FMCG distributors now curate their product selections based on hyper-localised demographic data. In neighbourhoods predominantly housing the Egyptian expatriate resident population, retail shelves are stocked with imported Egyptian brands, value-pack essentials, and budget-friendly electronics.

In contrast, retail spaces targeting Gulf nationals focus on premium, organic, and luxury international brands. This bifurcation in the retail sector demonstrates how deeply the market analytics have penetrated corporate strategy. A “one-size-fits-all” retail strategy in the Saudi Egypt economic corridor is now a guaranteed formula for lost revenue and diminished market share.

Policy Implications and Structural Reforms

Legislative Updates Fostering Bilateral Trade

Recognising the evolving nature of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor, both governments have proactively introduced legislative updates in 2026. These reforms are primarily aimed at dismantling legacy bureaucratic barriers and harmonising legal frameworks. Key updates include the standardisation of quality control and product certification processes, meaning that a product approved for sale in Egypt is fast-tracked for approval in Saudi Arabia, and vice versa.

Additionally, new dispute resolution mechanisms have been legally codified, providing international investors with the confidence that any contractual disagreements will be handled swiftly and fairly by joint arbitration tribunals. These legislative structural reforms are critical for maintaining the high growth trajectory of foreign direct investment and ensuring that the corridor remains competitive against other global trade hubs.

Harmonising Customs and Tariffs

A major milestone in 2026 has been the extensive harmonisation of customs and tariffs. In the past, fluctuating tariff rates and complex customs documentation caused significant delays at border crossings and seaports. The implementation of a unified digital customs manifesto has drastically reduced these bottlenecks.

For the Saudi Egypt economic corridor, this means that the $4.72 billion in refined petroleum and hundreds of millions in agricultural products can flow almost unimpeded. The reduction of non-tariff barriers specifically benefits the SME sector, allowing smaller Egyptian manufacturers to directly supply the Saudi market without being overwhelmed by prohibitive export costs.

Joint Committees and Diplomatic Task Forces

To oversee this vast economic machinery, the two nations have established permanent joint committees and diplomatic task forces. These bodies, comprising officials from ministries of trade, finance, and investment, meet quarterly to assess the health of the Saudi Egypt economic corridor. Their mandate is to review current market analytics, assess the impact of the demographic split, and adjust bilateral policies accordingly.

These task forces are also responsible for monitoring the progress of mega-projects like the electrical interconnection and sovereign real estate investments. By institutionalising this high-level dialogue, Saudi Arabia and Egypt have ensured that their economic alliance is not subject to the whims of shifting political tides, but is instead managed as a permanent, integrated economic zone.

Official Statements and Expert Analysis

Insights from the Saudi-Egyptian Business Council

Official statements from the Saudi-Egyptian Business Council consistently highlight the unprecedented success of the bilateral relationship. Reports issued by the Federation of Saudi Chambers underline that Egypt is considered the biggest Arab commercial partner to the Kingdom, serving as both a massive consumer market and a gateway to the broader African continent.

Business leaders emphasize that Saudi investments in Egypt, historically exceeding $32 billion through thousands of companies, are now highly targeted. Experts on the council advise that future investments must strictly acknowledge the market analytics showing the split between Gulf nationals and the expatriate resident population. Ignoring this divide, they warn, will lead to misallocated capital and missed opportunities in both the luxury and essential goods sectors.

Economic Projections from Financial Authorities

Financial authorities, including analysts affiliated with GAFI and the Saudi Ministry of Investment, project sustained, aggressive growth for the Saudi Egypt economic corridor through the end of the decade. They note that the completion of the 3GW electrical interconnection project in 2026 is just the beginning of deeper infrastructural integration.

Official projections suggest that as Saudi Vision 2030 approaches its culmination, the reliance on the Egyptian workforce and agricultural output will only increase. Simultaneously, as Egypt’s economy stabilises and its infrastructure modernises, its capacity to absorb high-value Saudi foreign direct investment will expand exponentially. The official consensus is clear: the corridor is transitioning from a traditional trade route into a deeply integrated, dual-demographic economic superpower.

Future Outlook: Projections for 2027 and Beyond

Accelerating Towards Respective 2030 Visions

Looking ahead to 2027 and beyond, the Saudi Egypt economic corridor is perfectly positioned to serve as the primary engine for both nations’ 2030 Visions. For Saudi Arabia, the corridor guarantees food security, industrial raw materials, and a reliable, culturally aligned workforce essential for its post-oil diversification. For Egypt, the corridor provides an indispensable source of sovereign investment, technological transfer, and foreign currency remittances.

The strategic alignment of these national visions means that government policies will continue to favour deep integration. We can expect further announcements regarding joint industrial zones, shared renewable energy grids extending beyond the initial 3GW project, and potentially unified digital currency frameworks to facilitate instantaneous cross-border trade.

Sustaining Growth in a Segmented Marketplace

Ultimately, sustaining this historic growth requires a commitment to data-driven strategies. As market analytics continue to track the deep split between Gulf nationals and the expatriate resident population, both the public and private sectors must remain agile. Businesses that successfully segment their product lines, marketing, and investment strategies to cater to the specific needs of these two distinct demographics will reap immense financial rewards.

The Saudi Egypt economic corridor has proven its resilience and its capacity for monumental scale. As of late 2026, it stands not just as a model of bilateral cooperation, but as a blueprint for how modern, demographically complex, and economically integrated regions can achieve unprecedented prosperity in the 21st century.